W a effect of stereotypes by carrie conaway 3

impact of affirmative action on women, none have focused on women at the highest rungs on the career ladder. Thus, we still do not know whether being the beneficiary of affirmative action early in their careers ultimately helps women to attain top leadership positions; though as noted, it does appear to have helped open doors to positions along the way. Affirmative action and antidiscrimination policy, in general, may also have broader social benefits, beyond the gains to the specific individuals hired, for instance by creating mentors and expanding networking opportunities for women and minorities. The benefits of affirmative action in employment, then, are moderately positive for women and minorities alike. Some individuals, however, perceive its costs to be large, which is what makes the policy so controversial and also may threaten its effectiveness. One concern that has been raised is that it creates defacto quotas. But work by Jonathan Leonard shows that federal contractors tend to fall short of their employment goals for women and minorities, suggesting that they are indeed goals and not quotas. The more frequently raised concern, however, is that affirmative action encourages reverse discrimination—deliberately excluding white men to provide more opportunities for women and minorities. Such concerns may particularly arise when the economy is in a downturn and jobs are scarce. However, Holzer and Neumark’s evidence suggests that the likelihood of more productive men or whites being passed over in favor of less productive women or minorities is probably low. And the fact that women and minorities still earn less than men and whites, all else equal, also indicates that reverse discrimination is not the norm. Concerns about affirmative action not only make the program politically sensitive but could actually cause problems for those who are supposed to benefit from it. They may be viewed as “affirmative action hires” rather than as equally qualified, equally productive employees. This, in turn, could sap their confidence, creating a self-fulfilling prophecy. On the other hand, without affirmative action, women and minorities are likely to have fewer opportunities available to them or may invest less in education and training because they think that it will not pay off down the line. Looking to the future, the challenge is to continue to find ways to equitably level the “playing field” so that everyone has an equal opportunity to succeed. S